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References from The freeze-arrest model of catatonia: a critical neuroimaging review with evo-neurobiological integration. Local targets link to admitted publications; unresolved targets remain external evidence.
Catatonic state as a rare presentation of neurobrucellosis: a case report
10.5812/ijpbs.95824 · 2019 · External reference
Organic catatonia: a review
2000 · External reference
Reversible splenial lesion syndrome in neuroleptic malignant syndrome
2009 · External reference
Encephalitis and catatonia treated with ECT
10.1097/wnn.0b013e318168464a · 2008 · External reference
First Bahraini adolescent with anti-NMDAR-ab encephalitis
2015 · External reference
Bilateral infarction of paramedian thalami: a report of two cases of artery of Percheron occlusion and review of the literature
10.1136/bcr.09.2010.3304 · 2011 · External reference
Clinically significant response to zolpidem in disorders of consciousness secondary to anti-N-methyl‑d-aspartate receptor encephalitis in a teenager: a case report
10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2013.11.001 · 2014 · External reference
On the pathophysiology and treatment of akinetic mutism
10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.006 · 2020 · External reference
Clinical and neuroimaging predictors of benzodiazepine response in catatonia: a machine learning approach
10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.02.039 · 2024 · External reference
Molecular and immunological origins of catatonia
10.1016/j.schres.2023.03.013 · 2024 · External reference
Iron deficiency alters brain development and functioning
10.1093/jn/133.5.1468s · 2003 · External reference
A cerebellar-prepontine circuit for tonic immobility triggered by an inescapable threat
10.1126/sciadv.abo0549 · 2022 · External reference
Electroconvulsive therapy as a treatment for refractory neuropsychiatric lupus with catatonia: three case studies and literature review
10.1177/0961203315585816 · 2015 · External reference
Évènements psychotiques inauguraux de sclérose en plaques ?
10.1016/j.neurol.2009.04.014 · 2010 · External reference
Progressive catatonia
10.2466/pr0.1999.84.1.239 · 1999 · External reference
Prolonged delirium with catatonia following orthotopic liver transplant responsive to memantine
10.1097/pra.0000000000000133 · 2016 · External reference
Catatonia and other motor syndromes in a chronically hospitalized psychiatric population
10.1016/s0920-9964(97)00084-4 · 1997 · External reference
Catatonia as a manifestation of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
2018 · External reference
Catatonia in dementia: a systematic review of case reports and case series
10.1016/j.jagp.2024.07.012 · 2024 · External reference
The medial hypothalamic defensive system: hodological organization and functional implications
10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00685-2 · 2002 · External reference
Catatonia due to thalamic degeneration: a case report
10.1017/s1092852900013432 · 2000 · External reference
Brain mechanisms underlying catatonia: a systematic review
10.1016/j.schres.2022.11.002 · 2024 · External reference
Catatonia and cannabis withdrawal: a case report
10.1080/08897077.2015.1052869 · 2016 · External reference
Catatonia in a 6-year-old patient following disseminated group A Streptococcus infection
2021 · External reference
Lessons on catatonia with or without delirium on the consultation-liaison psychiatry service in a Lebanese tertiary care center: a retrospective chart review of 36 cases of catatonia
10.1186/s12888-025-07646-x · 2025 · External reference
Catatonia associated with hyperthyroidism: an illustrative case and systematic review of published cases
10.1016/j.jaclp.2024.11.005 · 2025 · External reference
A case report of catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome with multiple treatment modalities: short communication and literature review
10.1097/md.0000000000001752 · 2015 · External reference
A case of catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome probably associated with antipsychotic in Korea
10.4306/pi.2011.8.2.174 · 2011 · External reference
Catatonia as a manifestation of tacrolimus-induced neurotoxicity in organ transplant patients: a case series
10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2011.08.008 · 2012 · External reference
Brain biopsy in the diagnosis of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease with a history of prodromal psychiatric symptoms and catatonic behavior
10.12740/app/63511 · 2016 · External reference
Amygdala and orbitofrontal reactivity to social threat in individuals with impulsive aggression
10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.024 · 2007 · External reference
‘Chasing the dragon’: new knowledge for an old practice
10.1097/mjt.0b013e31820b8856 · 2014 · External reference
How do you feel--now? The anterior insula and human awareness
10.1038/nrn2555 · 2009 · External reference
Case report: catatonic stupor in behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia
2021 · External reference
Functional organization of social perception and cognition in the superior temporal sulcus
10.1093/cercor/bhv111 · 2015 · External reference
Neuraxial anesthesia in a patient with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis in pregnancy: management for cesarean delivery and oophorectomy
10.1016/j.ijoa.2017.05.006 · 2017 · External reference
Arc de cercle and dysautonomia from anoxic injury
10.1002/mds.20831 · 2006 · External reference
Functional neuroimaging in patients with catatonia: a systematic review
10.1016/j.jpsychores.2024.111640 · 2024 · External reference
Clinical and biological distinctions between catatonia due to a medical condition and catatonia associated with a psychiatric disorder
10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2025.12.004 · 2026 · External reference
Miliary brain metastases in a patient with ROS1-rearranged lung adenocarcinoma: a case report
10.1097/jto.0000000000000091 · 2014 · External reference
Probable autoimmune catatonia with antibodies against cilia on hippocampal granule cells and highly suspicious cerebral FDG-positron emission tomography findings
10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.12.020 · 2020 · External reference
The role of medial prefrontal cortex in memory and decision making
10.1016/j.neuron.2012.12.002 · 2012 · External reference
Temporal glioblastoma presenting as catatonia
10.1136/bcr-2017-224017 · 2019 · External reference
Brain evolution and the meaning of catatonia - an update
10.1016/j.schres.2023.01.026 · 2024 · External reference
Brainstem alterations contribute to catatonia in schizophrenia spectrum disorders
10.1016/j.schres.2020.09.025 · 2020 · External reference
Structural alterations of amygdala and hypothalamus contribute to catatonia
10.1016/j.schres.2022.05.003 · 2024 · External reference
ECT treatment of malignant catatonia/NMS in an adolescent: a useful lesson in delayed diagnosis and treatment
10.1097/00124509-200206000-00006 · 2002 · External reference
Retrospective chart review of catatonia in child and adolescent psychiatric patients
10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01778.x · 2012 · External reference
Electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with Moyamoya syndrome
10.1097/yct.0000000000000151 · 2015 · External reference
The neuroleptic malignant syndrome--a review
10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a067888 · 1985 · External reference
Relevance of brain (18)F-FDG PET imaging in probable seronegative encephalitis with catatonia: a case report
2021 · External reference
Brain imaging in catatonia: systematic review and directions for future research
10.1017/s0033291720001853 · 2020 · External reference
Neural dynamics of shooting decisions and the switch from freeze to fight
10.1038/s41598-019-40917-8 · 2019 · External reference
Cannabis-induced catatonia: a case study
2025 · External reference
Fear bradycardia and activation of the human periaqueductal grey
10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.063 · 2013 · External reference
Multimodal magnetic resonance imaging data fusion reveals distinct patterns of abnormal brain structure and function in catatonia
10.1093/schbul/sbz042 · 2019 · External reference
Catatonia
10.1038/s41572-024-00534-w · 2024 · External reference
Catatonia following biparietal infarction with spontaneous recovery
10.1136/pgmj.65.763.316 · 1989 · External reference
Catatonia induced by idiopathic hypertrophic pachymeningitis
10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.11.007 · 2010 · External reference
Pernicious anaemia presenting as catatonia without signs of anaemia or macrocytosis
10.1192/bjp.bp.108.054072 · 2010 · External reference
Imaging of dopamine receptors with [123I]iodobenzamide single-photon emission–computed tomography in neuroleptic malignant syndrome
10.1002/mds.870110621 · 1996 · External reference
Clinical neuroimaging findings in catatonia: neuroradiological reports of MRI scans of psychiatric inpatients with and without catatonia
10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21070181 · 2022 · External reference
Organic catatonia with small vessel vascular lesions involving basal ganglia
10.1176/appi.neuropsych.13050106 · 2014 · External reference
Therapeutic strategies for catatonia in paraneoplastic encephalitis
10.1080/15622970701459802 · 2008 · External reference
Reversible splenial lesion syndrome with a hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state and neuroleptic malignant syndrome caused by olanzapine
10.1111/jdi.12597 · 2017 · External reference
Role of the primate orbitofrontal cortex in mediating anxious temperament
10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.004 · 2007 · External reference
A metabolic brain pattern associated with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis
10.1016/j.psym.2019.08.007 · 2020 · External reference
Postpartum catatonia associated with atypical posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
10.1176/jnp.2007.19.1.91a · 2007 · External reference
Association between COVID-19 and catatonia manifestation in two adolescents in Central Asia: incidental findings or cause for alarm?
10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102761 · 2021 · External reference
Fear and the defense Cascade: clinical implications and management
10.1097/hrp.0000000000000065 · 2015 · External reference
The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in the regulation of fear coping strategies
2024 · External reference
Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) presenting with catatonic symptoms
10.1111/j.1479-8301.2006.00108.x · 2006 · External reference
Neurochemical anatomy of dorsal and tonic immobility responses
10.1016/j.pbb.2022.173334 · 2022 · External reference
Review of withdrawal catatonia: what does this reveal about clozapine?
10.1038/s41398-018-0192-9 · 2018 · External reference
Emotion circuits in the brain
10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.155 · 2000 · External reference
Serum iron in catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome
10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00109-7 · 1998 · External reference
18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography findings with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis that showed variable degrees of catatonia: three cases report
10.14581/jer.14014 · 2014 · External reference
The pathobiology of psychomotor slowing in psychosis: altered cortical excitability and connectivity
10.1093/brain/awad395 · 2024 · External reference
Gaps and controversies in catatonia as a movement disorder
10.1002/mds.29906 · 2024 · External reference
Reduced striatal dopamine transmission as a transdiagnostic substrate of psychomotor retardation
10.1093/brain/awaf335 · 2025 · External reference
Visuocortical changes during a freezing-like state in humans
10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.013 · 2018 · External reference
Ifosfamide-induced catatonia - A rare presentation and review of Ifosfamide-induced central nervous system toxicity along with therapeutic approaches
10.21873/anticanres.17694 · 2025 · External reference
Selective cerebellar and basal ganglia injury in neuroleptic malignant syndrome
10.1111/j.1552-6569.2011.00579.x · 2013 · External reference
Catatonia and autism spectrum disorder: a common comorbid syndrome or a core feature?
10.5498/wjp.v15.i5.103967 · 2025 · External reference
Predicting the response to lorazepam in catatonia: a network analysis approach
10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111435 · 2025 · External reference
An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function
10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 · 2001 · External reference
Catatonia in autism and other neurodevelopmental disabilities: a state-of-the-art review
10.1038/s44184-022-00012-9 · 2022 · External reference
HSV encephalitis-induced anti-NMDAR encephalitis in a 67-year-old woman: report of a case and review of the literature
2016 · External reference
“scared stiff”: catatonia as an evolutionary-based fear response
10.1037/0033-295x.111.4.984 · 2004 · External reference
Pediatric anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis with catatonia: treatment with electroconvulsive therapy
10.1186/s12969-019-0310-0 · 2019 · External reference
Orbitofrontal sulcal patterns in catatonia
10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2461 · 2023 · External reference
Autoimmune encephalitis presenting with malignant catatonia in a 40-year-old male patient with COVID-19
10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20081236 · 2021 · External reference
Prefrontal cortex interactions with the amygdala in primates
10.1038/s41386-021-01128-w · 2022 · External reference
Functional role of the supplementary and pre-supplementary motor areas
10.1038/nrn2478 · 2008 · External reference
Reassessing models of basal ganglia function and dysfunction
10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-013916 · 2014 · External reference
Evolutionary psychiatry: foundations, progress and challenges
10.1002/wps.21072 · 2023 · External reference
Catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: psychopathology and pathophysiology
10.1007/s00702-002-0762-z · 2002 · External reference
What catatonia can tell us about “top-down modulation”: a neuropsychiatric hypothesis
10.1017/s0140525x02000109 · 2002 · External reference
Decreased density of GABA-A receptors in the left sensorimotor cortex in akinetic catatonia: investigation of in vivo benzodiazepine receptor binding
10.1136/jnnp.67.4.445 · 1999 · External reference
Orbitofrontal cortical dysfunction in Akinetic catatonia: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study during negative emotional stimulation
10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007088 · 2004 · External reference
Orbitofrontal cortical dysfunction and “sensori-motor regression”: a combined study of fMRI and personal constructs in catatonia
10.1080/15294145.2002.10773394 · 2014 · External reference
The effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy on catatonia in a case of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (anti-NMDA) receptor encephalitis
2021 · External reference
Describing the features of catatonia: a comparative phenotypic analysis
10.1016/j.schres.2022.08.002 · 2024 · External reference
Catatonia as a risk factor for the development of neuroleptic malignant syndrome: report of a case following treatment with clozapine
10.1080/15622970701287369 · 2009 · External reference
Resting state functional connectivity and structural abnormalities of the brain in acute retarded catatonia: an exploratory MRI study
10.1007/s00406-021-01345-w · 2022 · External reference
Brain activation elicited by acute stress: an ALE meta-analysis
10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.020 · 2022 · External reference
Catatonia after cerebral hypoxia: do the usual treatments apply?
10.1016/j.psym.2014.03.010 · 2014 · External reference
Cotard syndrome in anti-NMDAR encephalitis: two patients and insights from molecular imaging
10.1080/13554794.2020.1866018 · 2021 · External reference
Catatonia: our current understanding of its diagnosis, treatment and pathophysiology
10.5498/wjp.v6.i4.391 · 2016 · External reference
Subcortical structure disruption in diffusion tensor Tractography of the patient with the syndrome of irreversible Lithium-effectuated neurotoxicity combined with neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case report
10.1097/wnf.0000000000000439 · 2021 · External reference
Lorazepam modulates orbitofrontal signal changes during emotional processing in catatonia
10.1002/hup.1084 · 2010 · External reference
Catatonia in the medically ill and dying: a review for palliative care clinicians
10.21037/apm-25-76 · 2025 · External reference
Freeze for action: neurobiological mechanisms in animal and human freezing
10.1098/rstb.2016.0206 · 2017 · External reference
Freezing revisited: coordinated autonomic and central optimization of threat coping
10.1038/s41583-022-00608-2 · 2022 · External reference
The orbitofrontal cortex and beyond: from affect to decision-making
10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.09.001 · 2008 · External reference
Neural circuitry for behavioural arrest
10.1098/rstb.2016.0197 · 2017 · External reference
Depressive episode with catatonic features in a case of mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes (MELAS)
10.1177/0883073809334380 · 2009 · External reference
Catatonia in the ICU: an important and underdiagnosed cause of altered mental status. A case series and review of the literature
10.1097/ccm.0000000000000053 · 2014 · External reference
Fear and stop: a role for the amygdala in motor inhibition by emotional signals
10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.027 · 2011 · External reference
Emotion, cognition, and mental state representation in amygdala and prefrontal cortex
10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135256 · 2010 · External reference
Intrinsic neural network dynamics in catatonia
10.1002/hbm.25671 · 2021 · External reference
Plasticity and primary motor cortex
10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.393 · 2000 · External reference
Inactivation of the ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex impairs flexible use of safety signals
10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.03.037 · 2018 · External reference
Asymmetric catalepsy after right hemisphere stroke
10.1002/mds.870080113 · 1993 · External reference
Anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis after herpes simplex virus-associated encephalitis: an emerging disease with diagnosis and therapeutic challenges
10.1007/s15010-016-0959-y · 2017 · External reference
Cerebral network deficits in post-acute catatonic schizophrenic patients measured by fMRI
10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.08.005 · 2009 · External reference
Psychological approaches to chronic catatonia-like deterioration in autism Spectrum disorders
10.1016/s0074-7742(05)72015-8 · 2006 · External reference
Medial or lateral orbitofrontal cortex activation during fear extinction differentially regulates fear renewal
10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113412 · 2021 · External reference
Longitudinal symptom burden and pharmacologic Management of Catatonia in autism with intellectual disability: an observational study
10.1002/aur.3315 · 2025 · External reference
Magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy in a young male patient with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis and uncommon cerebellar involvement: a case report with review of the literature
10.1177/1971400915609333 · 2016 · External reference
Functional topography in the human cerebellum: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies
10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.08.039 · 2009 · External reference
Catatonia in psychiatric classification: a home of its own
10.1176/appi.ajp.160.7.1233 · 2003 · External reference
Doubling down on dual systems: a cerebellum–amygdala route towards action- and outcome-based social and affective behavior
10.1016/j.cortex.2024.02.002 · 2024 · External reference
Refining research diagnostic criteria for catatonia among delirium, medical, affective, and psychosis patient groups
10.1176/appi.neuropsych.20230100 · 2025 · External reference
N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody could be a cause of catatonic symptoms in psychiatric patients: case reports and methods for detection
10.2147/ndt.s125800 · 2017 · External reference
Lorazepam for chronic catatonia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study
10.1007/s002130050904 · 1999 · External reference
Catatonia in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis
10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.2259 · 2021 · External reference
What clinical analysis of antipsychotic-induced catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome tells us about the links between these two syndromes: a systematic review
10.1016/j.schres.2023.08.003 · 2023 · External reference
Immobility reactions under threat: a contribution to human defensive cascade and PTSD
10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.025 · 2017 · External reference
Electroconvulsive therapy for pediatric malignant catatonia with cerebellar dysgenesis
10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2010.06.009 · 2010 · External reference
Resting-state hyperperfusion of the supplementary motor area in catatonia
2017 · External reference
Structural alterations of the motor cortex and higher order cortical areas suggest early neurodevelopmental origin of catatonia in schizophrenia
10.1016/j.schres.2022.10.004 · 2024 · External reference
Multiparametric mapping of white matter microstructure in catatonia
10.1038/s41386-020-0691-2 · 2020 · External reference
Active avoidance and attentive freezing in the face of approaching threat
10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.06.054 · 2017 · External reference
Catatonia in autistic spectrum disorders
10.1192/bjp.176.4.357 · 2000 · External reference
A systematic examination of catatonia-like clinical pictures in autism Spectrum disorders
10.1016/s0074-7742(05)72002-x · 2006 · External reference
Antipsychotic induced catatonia: a case of probable dementia with Lewy bodies
10.1176/jnp.2009.21.4.472 · 2009 · External reference
A reversible isolated lesion in the splenium of corpus callosum in a patient with probable neuroleptic malignant syndrome -- case report
2015 · External reference
The psychological and subjective experience of catatonia: a qualitative study
10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7 · 2022 · External reference