Research graph
References from Conversational AI as a Cognitive Scaffold or a Substitute for Thinking: A Dual-Path Model of Cognitive Offloading, Post- Response Deep Processing, and Critical Thinking. Local targets link to admitted publications; unresolved targets remain external evidence.
The role of generative AI tools in shaping mechanical engineering education from an undergraduate perspective
10.1038/s41598-025-93871-z · 2025 · External reference
Status and perceptions of ChatGPT utilization among medical students: a survey-based study
10.1186/s12909-025-07438-7 · 2025 · External reference
10.1007/s11528-025-01100-1
10.1007/s11528-025-01100-1 · 2025 · External reference
Exploring the Impact of Generative AI ChatGPT on Critical Thinking in Higher Education: Passive AI-Directed Use or Human–AI Supported Collaboration?
10.3390/educsci15091198 · 2025 · External reference
AI tools in society: Impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking
10.3390/soc15010006 · 2025 · External reference
Smart tools, smarter minds? Learner-AI interaction and AI assistance on critical thinking in EAP contexts
10.1016/j.jeap.2025.101586 · 2025 · External reference
Research trends and network approach of critical thinking skills in English Language Teaching–A bibliometric analysis implementing R studio
10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42080 · 2025 · External reference
A critical thinking thematic framework and observation tool for improved theory and developing secondary teachers’ instructional practice: Proof of concept
10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101787 · 2025 · External reference
Role design considerations of conversational agents to facilitate discussion and systems thinking
10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104661 · 2023 · External reference
Common ground improves learning with conversational agents
10.1080/0144929x.2025.2541222 · 2026 · External reference
Empathic pedagogical conversational agents: a systematic literature review
10.1111/bjet.13413 · 2024 · External reference
The Effects of Critical Thinking Intervention on Reliance Behaviors, Problem-solving Quality, and Creativity during Human-Generative AI Collaborative Learning
10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105576 · 2026 · External reference
Meta-cognitive insights into cognitive offloading: mechanisms, interventions, and educational implications
10.1057/s41599-026-06621-5 · 2026 · External reference
Scaffolding critical thinking with generative AI: Design principles for integrating large language models in higher education
10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100572 · 2026 · External reference
Developing generative AI literacies through self-regulated learning: A human-centered approach
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100482 · 2025 · External reference
Will the use of AI undermine students independent thinking?
10.3390/educsci15060669 · 2025 · External reference
Effect of levels-of-processing on rates of forgetting
10.3758/s13421-024-01581-4 · 2025 · External reference
Mapping the memory structure of high-knowledge students: A longitudinal semantic network analysis
10.3390/jintelligence12060056 · 2024 · External reference
Situating higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking in problem-and project-based learning environments: A systematic review
10.1007/s10648-023-09757-x · 2023 · External reference
Learning critical thinking skills online: can precision teaching help?
10.1007/s11423-023-10227-y · 2023 · External reference
A Systematic Literature Review on the Pedagogical Implications and Impact of GenAI on Students’ Critical Thinking
10.3390/a19030179 · 2026 · External reference
The mediating role of generative AI self-regulation on students’ critical thinking and problem-solving
10.3390/educsci14121302 · 2024 · External reference
Generative AI as a dialogic partner: Enhancing multiple perspectives, reasoning, and argumentation in science education with customized chatbots
10.1007/s10956-025-10240-1 · 2025 · External reference
Validating and refining a multi-dimensional scale for measuring AI literacy in education using the Rasch Model
10.1057/s41599-025-05670-6 · 2025 · External reference
The literacy paradox: How AI literacy amplifies biases in evaluating AI-generated news articles
10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2025.102992 · 2026 · External reference
Same AI, Different Pathways: Unpacking Mechanisms of AI-Mediated Learning across Discipline-Institution Contexts
10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100601 · 2026 · External reference
Bridging AI chatbot use and critical thinking: the mediating role of AI literacy
10.1080/10494820.2025.2605487 · 2026 · External reference
Generative AI literacy: Scale development and its influence on privacy protection behaviors and information verification behaviors
10.1016/j.telpol.2025.103117 · 2026 · External reference
The effects of over-reliance on AI dialogue systems on students' cognitive abilities: a systematic review
10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7 · 2024 · External reference
The cognitive impact of ChatGPT in higher education: A systematic review of critical and creative thinking outcomes
10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100571 · 2026 · External reference
From offloading to engagement: an experimental study on structured prompting and critical reasoning with generative AI
10.3390/data10110172 · 2025 · External reference
Generative AI tool use enhances academic achievement in sustainable education through shared metacognition and cognitive offloading among preservice teachers
10.1038/s41598-025-01676-x · 2025 · External reference
Enhancing scientific argumentation with visual scaffolding in generative AI-supported environments
10.1080/09500693.2026.2630293 · 2026 · External reference
Cognitive offloading through digital tools and its relationship with critical thinking, task persistence, and learning depth
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1781101 · 2026 · External reference
Navigating the landscape of AI literacy education: insights from a decade of research (2014–2024)
10.1057/s41599-025-04583-8 · 2025 · External reference
Facilitator or hindrance? The impact of AI on university students' higher-order thinking skills in complex problem solving
10.1186/s41239-025-00534-0 · 2025 · External reference
Educational Technology and AI: Bridging Cognitive Load and Learner Engagement for Effective Learning
10.1177/21582440251395930 · 2025 · External reference
Trust and reliance on AI—An experimental study on the extent and costs of overreliance on AI
10.1016/j.chb.2024.108352 · 2024 · External reference
Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X) AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation
10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101357 · 2025 · External reference
Adaptive vs. planned metacognitive scaffolding for computational thinking: Evidence from generative AI-supported programming in elementary education
10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105473 · 2025 · External reference
Outsourcing thinking to AI? Focused immersion, AI dependency, and the double-edged impact on critical thinking
10.1057/s41599-026-07153-8 · 2026 · External reference
Cognitive ease at a cost: LLMs reduce mental effort but compromise depth in student scientific inquiry
10.1016/j.chb.2024.108386 · 2024 · External reference
Empowering ChatGPT with guidance mechanism in blended learning: Effect of self-regulated learning, higher-order thinking skills, and knowledge construction
10.1186/s41239-024-00447-4 · 2024 · External reference
Enhancing self-regulated learning and higher-order thinking skills in virtual reality: the impact of ChatGPT-integrated feedback aids
10.1007/s10639-025-13557-x · 2025 · External reference
Scaffolding generative AI as a tutor: A quasi-experimental study of learning outcomes and motivational, cognitive and metacognitive processes
10.3390/educsci16040651 · 2026 · External reference
Effect of summarizing scaffolding and textual cues on learning performance, mental model, and cognitive load in a virtual reality environment: An experimental study
10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104793 · 2023 · External reference
Learners' AI dependence and critical thinking: The psychological mechanism of fatigue and the social buffering role of AI literacy
10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105725 · 2025 · External reference
Exploring students’ AI literacy and its effects on their AI output quality, self-efficacy, and academic performance
10.1186/s40561-025-00384-3 · 2025 · External reference
Verifying Outputs in Scopus AI to Promote Critical AI Literacy in Education and Research
2026 · External reference
Exploring the impact of generative artificial intelligence on students’ learning outcomes: A meta-analysis
10.1007/s10639-025-13420-z · 2025 · External reference
Evaluating AI literacy of secondary students: Framework and scale development
10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105230 · 2025 · External reference
The effect of generative artificial intelligence literacy on academic achievement: the mediating role of academic self-efficacy and the moderating role of critical thinking
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761562 · 2026 · External reference
Development and validation of the perceived interactivity of learner-AI interaction scale
10.1007/s10639-024-12963-x · 2025 · External reference
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100485
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100485 · 2025 · External reference
Artificial intelligence self-efficacy: Scale development and validation
10.1007/s10639-023-12015-w · 2024 · External reference
Design and validation of the AI literacy questionnaire: The affective, behavioural, cognitive and ethical approach
10.1111/bjet.13411 · 2024 · External reference
A systematic review of AI literacy scales
10.1038/s41539-024-00264-4 · 2024 · External reference
Charting competence: A holistic scale for measuring proficiency in artificial intelligence literacy
10.1177/07356331241261206 · 2024 · External reference
Critical thinking evaluation scale: Design and validation in a Colombian population
10.1177/21582440241297418 · 2024 · External reference
Validating a critical thinking ability questionnaire for EFL learners
10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101442 · 2024 · External reference
Elevating theoretical insight and predictive accuracy in business research: Combining PLS-SEM and selected machine learning algorithms
10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114453 · 2024 · External reference
Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to Examine Causal Complexity in Business Students' Sustainability Behavioural Intentions
10.1111/hequ.70076 · 2025 · External reference
Metacognitive AI literacy: findings from an interactive AI fair
10.1007/s00146-025-02803-y · 2025 · External reference
Effects of different AI-driven Chatbot feedback on learning outcomes and brain activity
10.1038/s41539-025-00311-8 · 2025 · External reference
Cognitive Offloading in the Age of Generative AI: What Does It Mean for Students With Learning Disabilities?
10.1177/07319487261439132 · 2026 · External reference
Metacognitive AI literacy: findings from an interactive AI fair
10.1007/s00146-025-02803-y · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Artificial intelligence self-efficacy: Scale development and validation
10.1007/s10639-023-12015-w · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Development and validation of the perceived interactivity of learner-AI interaction scale
10.1007/s10639-024-12963-x · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Exploring the impact of generative artificial intelligence on students’ learning outcomes: A meta-analysis
10.1007/s10639-025-13420-z · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Enhancing self-regulated learning and higher-order thinking skills in virtual reality: the impact of ChatGPT-integrated feedback aids
10.1007/s10639-025-13557-x · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Situating higher-order, critical, and critical-analytic thinking in problem-and project-based learning environments: A systematic review
10.1007/s10648-023-09757-x · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Generative AI as a dialogic partner: Enhancing multiple perspectives, reasoning, and argumentation in science education with customized chatbots
10.1007/s10956-025-10240-1 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Learning critical thinking skills online: can precision teaching help?
10.1007/s11423-023-10227-y · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1007/s11528-025-01100-1
10.1007/s11528-025-01100-1 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Learners' AI dependence and critical thinking: The psychological mechanism of fatigue and the social buffering role of AI literacy
10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105725 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Developing generative AI literacies through self-regulated learning: A human-centered approach
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100482 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100485
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100485 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The cognitive impact of ChatGPT in higher education: A systematic review of critical and creative thinking outcomes
10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100571 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Scaffolding critical thinking with generative AI: Design principles for integrating large language models in higher education
10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100572 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Same AI, Different Pathways: Unpacking Mechanisms of AI-Mediated Learning across Discipline-Institution Contexts
10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100601 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Trust and reliance on AI—An experimental study on the extent and costs of overreliance on AI
10.1016/j.chb.2024.108352 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Cognitive ease at a cost: LLMs reduce mental effort but compromise depth in student scientific inquiry
10.1016/j.chb.2024.108386 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Trust, distrust, and appropriate reliance in (X) AI: A conceptual clarification of user trust and survey of its empirical evaluation
10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101357 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Role design considerations of conversational agents to facilitate discussion and systems thinking
10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104661 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Effect of summarizing scaffolding and textual cues on learning performance, mental model, and cognitive load in a virtual reality environment: An experimental study
10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104793 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Evaluating AI literacy of secondary students: Framework and scale development
10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105230 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Adaptive vs. planned metacognitive scaffolding for computational thinking: Evidence from generative AI-supported programming in elementary education
10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105473 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The Effects of Critical Thinking Intervention on Reliance Behaviors, Problem-solving Quality, and Creativity during Human-Generative AI Collaborative Learning
10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105576 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Research trends and network approach of critical thinking skills in English Language Teaching–A bibliometric analysis implementing R studio
10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42080 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The literacy paradox: How AI literacy amplifies biases in evaluating AI-generated news articles
10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2025.102992 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Elevating theoretical insight and predictive accuracy in business research: Combining PLS-SEM and selected machine learning algorithms
10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114453 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Smart tools, smarter minds? Learner-AI interaction and AI assistance on critical thinking in EAP contexts
10.1016/j.jeap.2025.101586 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Generative AI literacy: Scale development and its influence on privacy protection behaviors and information verification behaviors
10.1016/j.telpol.2025.103117 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Validating a critical thinking ability questionnaire for EFL learners
10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101442 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
A critical thinking thematic framework and observation tool for improved theory and developing secondary teachers’ instructional practice: Proof of concept
10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101787 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
A systematic review of AI literacy scales
10.1038/s41539-024-00264-4 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Effects of different AI-driven Chatbot feedback on learning outcomes and brain activity
10.1038/s41539-025-00311-8 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Generative AI tool use enhances academic achievement in sustainable education through shared metacognition and cognitive offloading among preservice teachers
10.1038/s41598-025-01676-x · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The role of generative AI tools in shaping mechanical engineering education from an undergraduate perspective
10.1038/s41598-025-93871-z · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Navigating the landscape of AI literacy education: insights from a decade of research (2014–2024)
10.1057/s41599-025-04583-8 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Validating and refining a multi-dimensional scale for measuring AI literacy in education using the Rasch Model
10.1057/s41599-025-05670-6 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Meta-cognitive insights into cognitive offloading: mechanisms, interventions, and educational implications
10.1057/s41599-026-06621-5 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Outsourcing thinking to AI? Focused immersion, AI dependency, and the double-edged impact on critical thinking
10.1057/s41599-026-07153-8 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Common ground improves learning with conversational agents
10.1080/0144929x.2025.2541222 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Enhancing scientific argumentation with visual scaffolding in generative AI-supported environments
10.1080/09500693.2026.2630293 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Bridging AI chatbot use and critical thinking: the mediating role of AI literacy
10.1080/10494820.2025.2605487 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Design and validation of the AI literacy questionnaire: The affective, behavioural, cognitive and ethical approach
10.1111/bjet.13411 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Empathic pedagogical conversational agents: a systematic literature review
10.1111/bjet.13413 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to Examine Causal Complexity in Business Students' Sustainability Behavioural Intentions
10.1111/hequ.70076 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Cognitive Offloading in the Age of Generative AI: What Does It Mean for Students With Learning Disabilities?
10.1177/07319487261439132 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Charting competence: A holistic scale for measuring proficiency in artificial intelligence literacy
10.1177/07356331241261206 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Critical thinking evaluation scale: Design and validation in a Colombian population
10.1177/21582440241297418 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Educational Technology and AI: Bridging Cognitive Load and Learner Engagement for Effective Learning
10.1177/21582440251395930 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Status and perceptions of ChatGPT utilization among medical students: a survey-based study
10.1186/s12909-025-07438-7 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The effects of over-reliance on AI dialogue systems on students' cognitive abilities: a systematic review
10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Exploring students’ AI literacy and its effects on their AI output quality, self-efficacy, and academic performance
10.1186/s40561-025-00384-3 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Empowering ChatGPT with guidance mechanism in blended learning: Effect of self-regulated learning, higher-order thinking skills, and knowledge construction
10.1186/s41239-024-00447-4 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Facilitator or hindrance? The impact of AI on university students' higher-order thinking skills in complex problem solving
10.1186/s41239-025-00534-0 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The effect of generative artificial intelligence literacy on academic achievement: the mediating role of academic self-efficacy and the moderating role of critical thinking
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761562 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Cognitive offloading through digital tools and its relationship with critical thinking, task persistence, and learning depth
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1781101 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
A Systematic Literature Review on the Pedagogical Implications and Impact of GenAI on Students’ Critical Thinking
10.3390/a19030179 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
From offloading to engagement: an experimental study on structured prompting and critical reasoning with generative AI
10.3390/data10110172 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The mediating role of generative AI self-regulation on students’ critical thinking and problem-solving
10.3390/educsci14121302 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Will the use of AI undermine students independent thinking?
10.3390/educsci15060669 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Exploring the Impact of Generative AI ChatGPT on Critical Thinking in Higher Education: Passive AI-Directed Use or Human–AI Supported Collaboration?
10.3390/educsci15091198 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Scaffolding generative AI as a tutor: A quasi-experimental study of learning outcomes and motivational, cognitive and metacognitive processes
10.3390/educsci16040651 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Mapping the memory structure of high-knowledge students: A longitudinal semantic network analysis
10.3390/jintelligence12060056 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
AI tools in society: Impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking
10.3390/soc15010006 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Effect of levels-of-processing on rates of forgetting
10.3758/s13421-024-01581-4 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
