References

Type 1 diabetes

10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31320-5 · 2018 · External reference

Staging presymptomatic type 1 diabetes: a scientific statement of JDRF, the Endocrine Society, and the American Diabetes Association

10.2337/dc15-1419 · 2015 · External reference

Consensus guidance for monitoring individuals with islet autoantibody-positive pre-stage 3 type 1 diabetes

2024 · External reference

The risk of progression to type 1 diabetes is highly variable in individuals with multiple autoantibodies following screening

10.1007/s00125-019-05047-w · 2020 · External reference

Classification and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and other categories of glucose intolerance

10.2337/diab.28.12.1039 · 1979 · External reference

2. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2025

10.2337/dc25-s002 · 2025 · External reference

Effects of oral insulin in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes: the Diabetes Prevention Trial–Type 1

10.2337/diacare.28.5.1068 · 2005 · External reference

Effects of insulin in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus

10.1056/nejmoa012350 · 2002 · External reference

; Type 1 Diabetes TrialNet Study Group. Hydroxychloroquine in Stage 1 Type 1 Diabetes

10.2337/dc23-1096 · 2023 · External reference

Abatacept for delay of type 1 diabetes progression in stage 1 relatives at risk: a randomized, double-masked, controlled trial

10.2337/dc22-2200 · 2023 · External reference

An anti-CD3 antibody, teplizumab, in relatives at risk for type 1 diabetes

10.1056/nejmoa1902226 · 2019 · External reference

C-peptide is the appropriate outcome measure for type 1 diabetes clinical trials to preserve beta-cell function: report of an ADA workshop, 21-22 October 2001

10.2337/diabetes.53.1.250 · 2004 · External reference

C-peptide and metabolic outcomes in trials of disease modifying therapy in new-onset type 1 diabetes: an individual participant meta-analysis

10.1016/s2213-8587(23)00267-x · 2023 · External reference

Dysglycemia and Index60 as prediagnostic end points for type 1 diabetes prevention trials

10.2337/dc17-0916 · 2017 · External reference

Index60 identifies individuals at appreciable risk for stage 3 among an autoantibody-positive population with normal 2-hour glucose levels: implications for current staging criteria of type 1 diabetes

10.2337/dc21-0944 · 2022 · External reference

Index60 as an additional diagnostic criterion for type 1 diabetes

10.1007/s00125-020-05365-4 · 2021 · External reference

A glucose fraction independent of insulin secretion: implications for type 1 diabetes progression in autoantibody-positive cohorts

10.1089/dia.2024.0422 · 2025 · External reference

Phenotypes associated with zones defined by area under the curve glucose and C-peptide in a population with islet autoantibodies

10.2337/dc22-2236 · 2023 · External reference

Interactions of age, islet cell antibodies, insulin autoantibodies, and first-phase insulin response in predicting risk of progression to IDDM in ICA+ relatives: the ICARUS data set. Islet Cell Antibody Register Users Study

10.2337/diab.45.12.1720 · 1996 · External reference

Insulin secretion and sensitivity in the prediction of type 1 diabetes in children with advanced β-cell autoimmunity

10.1530/eje-13-0206 · 2013 · External reference

Hyperglycaemic clamp test for diabetes risk assessment in IA-2-antibody-positive relatives of type 1 diabetic patients

10.1007/s00125-009-1569-3 · 2010 · External reference

Hyperglycemic clamp and oral glucose tolerance test for 3-year prediction of clinical onset in persistently autoantibody-positive offspring and siblings of type 1 diabetic patients

10.1210/jc.2014-2035 · 2015 · External reference

Simplifying prediction of disease progression in pre-symptomatic type 1 diabetes using a single blood sample

10.1007/s00125-021-05523-2 · 2021 · External reference

The application of the diabetes prevention trial-type 1 risk score for identifying a preclinical state of type 1 diabetes

10.2337/dc12-0011 · 2012 · External reference

A new approach for diagnosing type 1 diabetes in autoantibody-positive individuals based on prediction and natural history

10.2337/dc14-1813 · 2015 · External reference

The metabolic progression to type 1 diabetes as indicated by serial oral glucose tolerance testing in the Diabetes Prevention Trial-type 1

10.2337/db11-1660 · 2012 · External reference

Glucose and C-peptide changes in the perionset period of type 1 diabetes in the Diabetes Prevention Trial-Type 1

10.2337/dc08-0935 · 2008 · External reference

C-peptide levels in subjects followed longitudinally before and after type 1 diabetes diagnosis in TrialNet

10.2337/dc19-2288 · 2020 · External reference

Patterns of metabolic progression to type 1 diabetes in the Diabetes Prevention Trial-Type 1

10.2337/diacare.29.03.06.dc05-1006 · 2006 · External reference

Progression to diabetes in relatives of type 1 diabetic patients: mechanisms and mode of onset

10.2337/db09-1378 · 2010 · External reference

Acceleration of the loss of the first-phase insulin response during the progression to type 1 diabetes in Diabetes Prevention Trial-Type 1 participants

10.2337/db13-0656 · 2013 · External reference

The transition from a compensatory increase to a decrease in C-peptide during the progression to type 1 diabetes and its relation to risk

10.2337/dc22-0167 · 2022 · External reference

The deterrence of rapid metabolic decline within 3 months after teplizumab treatment in individuals at high risk for type 1 diabetes

10.2337/db21-0519 · 2021 · External reference

Novel approach for assessing outcomes of type 1 diabetes prevention trials over a fixed time interval

10.2337/db25-0310 · 2025 · External reference

Comparisons of metabolic measures to predict T1D vs detect a preventive treatment effect in high-risk individuals

10.1210/clinem/dgae048 · 2024 · External reference

Seroconversion to multiple islet autoantibodies and risk of progression to diabetes in children

10.1001/jama.2013.6285 · 2013 · External reference

Yield of a public health screening of children for islet autoantibodies in Bavaria, Germany

10.1001/jama.2019.21565 · 2020 · External reference

High levels of serum C-peptide are associated with a decreased risk for incident renal progression in patients with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective cohort study

10.1136/bmjdrc-2022-003201 · 2023 · External reference

Call for standardization of C-peptide measurement

10.1177/19322968251362848 · 2025 · External reference

Early detection of β-cell decline using home dried blood spot C-peptide levels in new-onset type 1 diabetes

10.2337/dc25-0214 · 2025 · External reference

One-hour oral glucose tolerance tests for the prediction and diagnostic surveillance of type 1 diabetes

10.1210/clinem/dgaa592 · 2020 · External reference

Development and recalibration of a multivariable type 1 diabetes prediction model for type 1 diabetes across multiple screening studies

10.1186/s12916-025-04225-5 · 2025 · External reference

Impact of routine clinic measurement of serum C-peptide in people with a clinician-diagnosis of type 1 diabetes

10.1111/dme.14449 · 2021 · External reference

Fall in C-peptide during first 2 years from diagnosis: evidence of at least two distinct phases from composite Type 1 Diabetes TrialNet data

10.2337/db11-1538 · 2012 · External reference

The clinical utility of C-peptide measurement in the care of patients with diabetes

10.1111/dme.12159 · 2013 · External reference

Evidence for C-peptide as a validated surrogate to predict clinical benefits in trials of disease-modifying therapies for type 1 diabetes

10.2337/dbi23-0012 · 2024 · External reference

Diabetes at the crossroads: relevance of disease classification to pathophysiology and treatment

10.1007/s00125-015-3789-z · 2016 · External reference

Early metabolic endpoints identify persistent treatment efficacy in recent-onset type 1 diabetes immunotherapy trials

10.2337/dc24-0171 · 2024 · External reference