References

Frequency and mortality of sepsis and septic shock in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis

10.1186/s12879-022-07543-8 · 2022 · External reference

Sepsis: key insights, future directions, and immediate goals. A review and expert opinion

10.1007/s00134-024-07694-z · 2024 · External reference

Sepsis, a 2020 review for the internist

10.2478/rjim-2020-0012 · 2020 · External reference

Pulmonary innate immune response determines the outcome of inflammation during pneumonia and sepsis-associated acute lung injury

10.3389/fimmu.2020.01722 · 2020 · External reference

Inflammation and cell death of the innate and adaptive immune system during sepsis

10.3390/biom11071011 · 2021 · External reference

Immune response resetting in ongoing sepsis

10.4049/jimmunol.1900104 · 2019 · External reference

The immunology of sepsis

10.1016/j.immuni.2021.10.012 · 2021 · External reference

Arginine and citrulline and the immune response in sepsis

10.3390/nu7031426 · 2015 · External reference

Antigen-presenting aged neutrophils induce CD4+ T cells to exacerbate inflammation in sepsis

10.1172/jci164585 · 2023 · External reference

CD4 T cell responses and the sepsis-induced immunoparalysis state

10.3389/fimmu.2020.01364 · 2020 · External reference

Single-cell multi-omic landscape reveals anatomical-specific immune features in adult and pediatric sepsis

10.1038/s41590-025-02345-x · 2026 · External reference

Soluble CD4 effectively prevents excessive TLR activation of resident macrophages in the onset of sepsis

10.1038/s41392-023-01438-z · 2023 · External reference

Sepsis-induced apoptosis causes progressive profound depletion of B and CD4+ T lymphocytes in humans

10.4049/jimmunol.166.11.6952 · 2001 · External reference

Sepsis-induced immunosuppression: from cellular dysfunctions to immunotherapy

10.1038/nri3552 · 2013 · External reference

Programmed death-1 levels correlate with increased mortality, nosocomial infection and immune dysfunctions in septic shock patients

10.1186/cc10112 · 2011 · External reference

TIGIT regulates CD4(+) T cell immunity against polymicrobial sepsis

10.3389/fimmu.2024.1290564 · 2024 · External reference

Immunosuppression in patients who die of sepsis and multiple organ failure

10.1001/jama.2011.1829 · 2011 · External reference

Molecular and cellular insights into T cell exhaustion

10.1038/nri3862 · 2015 · External reference

The epigenetic landscape of T cell exhaustion

10.1126/science.aae0491 · 2016 · External reference

Epigenetic scars of CD8(+) T cell exhaustion persist after cure of chronic infection in humans

10.1038/s41590-021-00979-1 · 2021 · External reference

Immunosuppression in sepsis: a novel understanding of the disorder and a new therapeutic approach

10.1016/s1473-3099(13)70001-x · 2013 · External reference

Inhibitory immune checkpoint molecule expression in clinical sepsis studies: a systematic review

10.1097/ccm.0000000000004496 · 2020 · External reference

Apoptosis-induced lymphopenia in sepsis and other severe injuries

10.1007/s10495-016-1325-3 · 2017 · External reference

Lymphopenia in bacterial sepsis and SARS-CoV-2 infection

10.3390/biomedicines14020438 · 2026 · External reference

Lymphopenia in sepsis: a narrative review

10.1186/s13054-024-05099-4 · 2024 · External reference

Selective defects of T lymphocyte function in patients with lethal intraabdominal infection

10.1016/s0002-9610(99)00183-x · 1999 · External reference

Targeting the programmed cell death 1: programmed cell death ligand 1 pathway reverses T cell exhaustion in patients with sepsis

10.1186/cc13176 · 2014 · External reference

The intestinal microenvironment in sepsis

10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.03.005 · 2017 · External reference

Progress in the study of the correlation between sepsis and intestinal microecology

10.3389/fcimb.2024.1357178 · 2024 · External reference

Immune checkpoints in sepsis and the path toward precision immunotherapy

10.1080/08820139.2026.2644292 · 2026 · External reference

Cytomegalovirus reactivation and the host immune response in patients with sepsis

10.1016/j.jinf.2025.106657 · 2025 · External reference

Immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of sepsis: insights from preclinical and clinical development

10.1080/13543784.2022.2102477 · 2022 · External reference

Immune deregulation in sepsis and septic shock: reversing immune paralysis by targeting PD-1/PD-L1 pathway

10.3389/fimmu.2020.624279 · 2020 · External reference

The diverse function of PD-1/PD-L pathway beyond cancer

10.3389/fimmu.2019.02298 · 2019 · External reference

The implication of targeting PD-1:PD-L1 pathway in treating sepsis through immunostimulatory and anti-inflammatory pathways

10.3389/fimmu.2023.1323797 · 2023 · External reference

Effect of PD-1: PD-L1 in invariant natural killer T-cell emigration and chemotaxis following sepsis

10.1097/shk.0000000000000553 · 2016 · External reference

Untargeted metabolomic profiling of the correlation between prognosis differences and PD-1 expression in sepsis: a preliminary study

10.3389/fimmu.2021.594270 · 2021 · External reference

The role of programmed cell death 1/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) axis in sepsis-induced apoptosis

10.3390/medicina60071174 · 2024 · External reference

Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) modulates chemokine production via the TLR4/TRAF6 signaling axis during LPS + IFN-γ-induced endotoxemia-mimicked sepsis

10.1007/s10753-025-02394-2 · 2026 · External reference

Optimal timing of PD-1/PD-L1 blockade protects organ function during sepsis

10.1007/s10753-024-02113-3 · 2025 · External reference

The immunoreceptor TIGIT regulates antitumor and antiviral CD8(+) T cell effector function

10.1016/j.ccell.2014.10.018 · 2014 · External reference

Mechanistic convergence of the TIGIT and PD-1 inhibitory pathways necessitates co-blockade to optimize anti-tumor CD8(+) T cell responses

10.1016/j.immuni.2022.02.005 · 2022 · External reference

TIGIT marks exhausted T cells, correlates with disease progression, and serves as a target for immune restoration in HIV and SIV infection

10.1371/journal.ppat.1005349 · 2016 · External reference

Immune checkpoint molecule TIGIT manipulates T cell dysfunction in septic patients

10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108205 · 2021 · External reference

TOX transcriptionally and epigenetically programs CD8(+) T cell exhaustion

10.1038/s41586-019-1325-x · 2019 · External reference

TOX reinforces the phenotype and longevity of exhausted T cells in chronic viral infection

10.1038/s41586-019-1326-9 · 2019 · External reference

TOX does not drive sepsis-induced T-cell exhaustion

10.1002/eji.202451395 · 2025 · External reference

Septic shock: a microcirculation disease

10.1097/aco.0000000000000957 · 2021 · External reference

Cellular processes in sepsis

10.4414/smw.2008.12319 · 2008 · External reference

The role of mitochondria in sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy

10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.10.011 · 2019 · External reference

Sepsis: older and newer concepts

10.1016/s2213-2600(15)00522-6 · 2016 · External reference

Enhancing regulatory T cells to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases

10.3390/ijms24097797 · 2023 · External reference

Regulatory T cells and their role in inflammatory bowel disease: molecular targets, therapeutic strategies and translational advances

10.1016/j.bcp.2025.117087 · 2025 · External reference

Gzmk(+) CD8 T cells in inflammatory diseases

10.3389/fimmu.2025.1661755 · 2025 · External reference

Metabolic reprogramming and dysregulated IL-17 production impairs CD4 T cell function post sepsis

10.1016/j.isci.2024.110114 · 2024 · External reference

Mitochondrial metabolism regulation of T cell-mediated immunity

10.1146/annurev-immunol-101819-082015 · 2021 · External reference

Mitochondrial stress induced by continuous stimulation under hypoxia rapidly drives T cell exhaustion

10.1038/s41590-020-00834-9 · 2021 · External reference

Diminished expression of GLS in CD4 + T cells serves as a prognostic indicator associated with cuproptosis in septic patients

10.1097/shk.0000000000002370 · 2024 · External reference

Biomarkers of sepsis

10.3109/10408363.2013.764490 · 2013 · External reference

Biomarkers of inflammation and the etiology of sepsis

10.1042/bst20190029 · 2020 · External reference

Sepsis biomarkers

10.1007/978-1-0716-1488-4_16 · 2021 · External reference

Sepsis biomarkers: a review

10.1186/cc8872 · 2010 · External reference

Predictive value of PD-1(+)CD3(+) T cells for 30-day mortality in patients with sepsis

10.1038/s41598-025-20299-w · 2025 · External reference

The role of PD-1/PD-L1 and IL-7 in lymphocyte dynamics and sepsis progression: a biomarker study in critically ill patients

10.3390/ijms252312612 · 2024 · External reference

Esculetin rebalances M1/M2 macrophage polarization to treat sepsis-induced acute lung injury through regulating metabolic reprogramming

10.1111/jcmm.70178 · 2024 · External reference

Identifying early predictive and diagnostic biomarkers and exploring metabolic pathways for sepsis after trauma based on an untargeted metabolomics approach

10.1038/s41598-025-92631-3 · 2025 · External reference

Novel insights in endocrine and metabolic pathways in sepsis and gaps for future research

10.1042/cs20211003 · 2022 · External reference

The transcription factor KLF14 regulates macrophage glycolysis and immune function by inhibiting HK2 in sepsis

10.1038/s41423-021-00806-5 · 2022 · External reference

Different expression characteristics of LAG3 and PD-1 in sepsis and their synergistic effect on T cell exhaustion: a new strategy for immune checkpoint blockade

10.3389/fimmu.2019.01888 · 2019 · External reference

Blockade of IL-17A/IL-17R pathway protected mice from sepsis-associated encephalopathy by inhibition of microglia activation

10.1155/2019/8461725 · 2019 · External reference

The future of immune checkpoint therapy

10.1126/science.aaa8172 · 2015 · External reference

Regulatory mechanisms of PD-1/PD-L1 in cancers

10.1186/s12943-024-02023-w · 2024 · External reference

TIGIT as an emerging immune checkpoint

10.1111/cei.13407 · 2020 · External reference

CD155/TIGIT, a novel immune checkpoint in human cancers (Review)

10.3892/or.2021.7943 · 2021 · External reference

Interleukin-7 restores lymphocytes in septic shock: the IRIS-7 randomized clinical trial

10.1172/jci.insight.98960 · 2018 · External reference

Interleukin-7 regulates Bim proapoptotic activity in peripheral T-cell survival

10.1128/mcb.01006-09 · 2010 · External reference

Interleukin-7 rescues human activated T lymphocytes from apoptosis induced by glucocorticoesteroids and regulates bcl-2 and CD25 expression

10.1016/0198-8859(94)00168-p · 1995 · External reference

Intravenously administered interleukin-7 to reverse lymphopenia in patients with septic shock: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial

10.1186/s13613-023-01109-w · 2023 · External reference

Metabolic reprogramming tailors T cell immunity in sepsis

10.3389/fimmu.2025.1679493 · 2025 · External reference

Sepsis and the immunometabolic inflammatory response

10.1038/s44324-025-00095-w · 2026 · External reference

T-cell metabolism governing activation, proliferation and differentiation; a modular view

10.1111/imm.12655 · 2017 · External reference

Glucose metabolism regulates T cell activation, differentiation, and functions

10.3389/fimmu.2015.00001 · 2015 · External reference

Epigenetic stability of exhausted T cells limits durability of reinvigoration by PD-1 blockade

10.1126/science.aaf2807 · 2016 · External reference

The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3)

10.1001/jama.2016.0287 · 2016 · External reference