Research graph
References from Generative AI, Performance, and Learning: A Framework for Comparing Interventions Across Assessment Regimes. Local targets link to admitted publications; unresolved targets remain external evidence.
Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies
10.3102/0013189x020003002 · 1991 · External reference
Learning versus performance: An integrative review
10.1177/1745691615569000 · 2015 · External reference
Exploring the assistance dilemma in experiments with Cognitive Tutors
10.1007/s10648-007-9049-0 · 2007 · External reference
Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning
10.1037/0003-066x.50.9.741 · 1995 · External reference
Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores
10.1111/jedm.12000 · 2013 · External reference
Promises and challenges of generative artificial intelligence for human learning
10.1038/s41562-024-02004-5 · 2024 · External reference
Distinguishing performance gains from learning when using generative AI
10.1038/s44159-025-00467-5 · 2025 · External reference
Unresolved reference
External reference
Generative AI without guardrails can harm learning: Evidence from high school mathematics
10.1073/pnas.2422633122 · 2025 · External reference
Less stress, better scores, same learning: The dissociation of performance and learning in AI-supported programming education
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100537 · 2026 · External reference
AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: An RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting
10.1038/s41598-025-97652-6 · 2025 · External reference
ChatGPT as a cognitive crutch: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial on knowledge retention
2025 · External reference
10.1186/s12909-026-09483-2
10.1186/s12909-026-09483-2 · External reference
10.1371/journal.pone.0304013
10.1371/journal.pone.0304013 · External reference
Creative scar without generative AI: Individual creativity fails to sustain while homogeneity keeps climbing
10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103087 · 2026 · External reference
Human-generative AI collaboration enhances task performance but undermines human’s intrinsic motivation
10.1038/s41598-025-98385-2 · 2025 · External reference
Think first, ChatGPT later: Guiding human–AI collaboration for learning gains in independent human creativity
10.1007/s10648-026-10118-7 · 2026 · External reference
Does ChatGPT enhance student learning? A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies
10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105224 · 2025 · External reference
The impact of GenAI on learning outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies
10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100714 · 2025 · External reference
ChatGPT’s impact on student learning outcomes: A meta-analysis of 35 experimental studies
10.1057/s41599-026-07019-z · 2026 · External reference
A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Generative Artificial Intelligence on Learning Outcomes
10.1111/jcal.70117 · 2025 · External reference
A Meta-Analysis of ChatGPT’s Influence on Learning Achievement
2026 · External reference
Generative AI technologies and educational outcomes: A comprehensive meta-analysis comparing traditional and AI-driven approaches
10.1057/s41599-026-06903-y · 2026 · External reference
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758670
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758670 · External reference
Eliminating ambiguous treatment effects using estimands
10.1093/aje/kwad036 · 2023 · External reference
Testing for qualitative interactions between treatment effects and patient subsets
10.2307/2530862 · 1985 · External reference
When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer
10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612 · 2002 · External reference
Cognitive offloading
10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 · 2016 · External reference
Extending Minds with Generative AI
10.1038/s41467-025-59906-9 · 2025 · External reference
Ironies of automation
10.1016/0005-1098(83)90046-8 · 1983 · External reference
A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation
10.1109/3468.844354 · 2000 · External reference
The effects of over-reliance on AI dialogue systems on students’ cognitive abilities: A systematic review
10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7 · 2024 · External reference
AI deskilling is a structural problem
10.1007/s00146-025-02686-z · 2026 · External reference
The role of tutoring in problem solving
10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x · 1976 · External reference
Focus on formative feedback
10.3102/0034654307313795 · 2008 · External reference
Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems
1989 · External reference
The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes
10.1080/00461520.2014.965823 · 2014 · External reference
10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422 · External reference
Impact of AI assistance on student agency
10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104967 · 2024 · External reference
Cognitive ease at a cost: LLMs reduce mental effort but compromise depth in student scientific inquiry
10.1016/j.chb.2024.108386 · 2024 · External reference
10.1145/3706598.3713778
10.1145/3706598.3713778 · External reference
Reporting guidelines for clinical trial reports for interventions involving artificial intelligence: The CONSORT-AI extension
10.1038/s41591-020-1034-x · 2020 · External reference
Reporting guideline for the early-stage clinical evaluation of decision support systems driven by artificial intelligence: DECIDE-AI
10.1038/s41591-022-01772-9 · 2022 · External reference
TRIPOD+AI statement: Updated guidance for reporting clinical prediction models that use regression or machine learning methods
10.1136/bmj-2023-078378 · 2024 · External reference
Human-centered GenAI feedback design in higher education: A multisite experiment on direct, reflective, and hybrid approaches to scientific argumentation
10.1186/s41239-026-00614-9 · 2026 · External reference
Effect of Using Generative Artificial Intelligence in Different Roles in a Course on Computer Programming
10.1002/cae.70223 · 2026 · External reference
Can artificial intelligence support creativity in early design processes?
2025 · External reference
10.1145/3708359.3712104
10.1145/3708359.3712104 · External reference
10.1109/educon62633.2025.11016517
10.1109/educon62633.2025.11016517 · External reference
Evaluating AI-assisted creative ideation: A crossover study in higher education
10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101958 · 2026 · External reference
When AI explains in natural language: Unveiling the impact of generative AI explanations on educators’ grading and feedback practices
10.1007/s10639-025-13741-z · 2025 · External reference
Effects of an AI-supported approach to peer feedback on university EFL students’ feedback quality and writing ability
10.1016/j.iheduc.2024.100962 · 2024 · External reference
10.1145/3706598.3713886
10.1145/3706598.3713886 · External reference
10.1145/3613904.3642159
10.1145/3613904.3642159 · External reference
10.1145/3816713.3816741
10.1145/3816713.3816741 · External reference
10.3389/feduc.2026.1834090
10.3389/feduc.2026.1834090 · External reference
10.1177/20427530261449472
10.1177/20427530261449472 · External reference
AI-assisted language learning: ChatGPT’s impact on mastering English tenses at the university level
2026 · External reference
10.1109/incit66780.2025.11276096
10.1109/incit66780.2025.11276096 · External reference
External validity: From do-calculus to transportability across populations
10.1214/14-sts486 · 2014 · External reference
Study designs for extending causal inferences from a randomized trial to a target population
10.1093/aje/kwaa270 · 2021 · External reference
ChatGPT versus expert feedback on clinical reasoning questions and their effect on learning: A randomized controlled trial
10.1093/postmj/qgae170 · 2025 · External reference
A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure
1979 · External reference
Experimental evidence on the productivity effects of generative artificial intelligence
10.1126/science.adh2586 · 2023 · External reference
When combinations of humans and AI are useful: A systematic review and meta-analysis
10.1038/s41562-024-02024-1 · 2024 · External reference
Human–AI agency in the age of generative AI
10.1016/j.infoandorg.2025.100560 · 2025 · External reference
Effect of Using Generative Artificial Intelligence in Different Roles in a Course on Computer Programming
10.1002/cae.70223 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
AI deskilling is a structural problem
10.1007/s00146-025-02686-z · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
When AI explains in natural language: Unveiling the impact of generative AI explanations on educators’ grading and feedback practices
10.1007/s10639-025-13741-z · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Exploring the assistance dilemma in experiments with Cognitive Tutors
10.1007/s10648-007-9049-0 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Think first, ChatGPT later: Guiding human–AI collaboration for learning gains in independent human creativity
10.1007/s10648-026-10118-7 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Ironies of automation
10.1016/0005-1098(83)90046-8 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Less stress, better scores, same learning: The dissociation of performance and learning in AI-supported programming education
10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100537 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Cognitive ease at a cost: LLMs reduce mental effort but compromise depth in student scientific inquiry
10.1016/j.chb.2024.108386 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Impact of AI assistance on student agency
10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104967 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Does ChatGPT enhance student learning? A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies
10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105224 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The impact of GenAI on learning outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies
10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100714 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Effects of an AI-supported approach to peer feedback on university EFL students’ feedback quality and writing ability
10.1016/j.iheduc.2024.100962 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Human–AI agency in the age of generative AI
10.1016/j.infoandorg.2025.100560 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Creative scar without generative AI: Individual creativity fails to sustain while homogeneity keeps climbing
10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103087 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Cognitive offloading
10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Evaluating AI-assisted creative ideation: A crossover study in higher education
10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101958 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning
10.1037/0003-066x.50.9.741 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer
10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Extending Minds with Generative AI
10.1038/s41467-025-59906-9 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Promises and challenges of generative artificial intelligence for human learning
10.1038/s41562-024-02004-5 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
When combinations of humans and AI are useful: A systematic review and meta-analysis
10.1038/s41562-024-02024-1 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Reporting guidelines for clinical trial reports for interventions involving artificial intelligence: The CONSORT-AI extension
10.1038/s41591-020-1034-x · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Reporting guideline for the early-stage clinical evaluation of decision support systems driven by artificial intelligence: DECIDE-AI
10.1038/s41591-022-01772-9 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: An RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting
10.1038/s41598-025-97652-6 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Human-generative AI collaboration enhances task performance but undermines human’s intrinsic motivation
10.1038/s41598-025-98385-2 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Distinguishing performance gains from learning when using generative AI
10.1038/s44159-025-00467-5 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Generative AI technologies and educational outcomes: A comprehensive meta-analysis comparing traditional and AI-driven approaches
10.1057/s41599-026-06903-y · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
ChatGPT’s impact on student learning outcomes: A meta-analysis of 35 experimental studies
10.1057/s41599-026-07019-z · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Generative AI without guardrails can harm learning: Evidence from high school mathematics
10.1073/pnas.2422633122 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes
10.1080/00461520.2014.965823 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Study designs for extending causal inferences from a randomized trial to a target population
10.1093/aje/kwaa270 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Eliminating ambiguous treatment effects using estimands
10.1093/aje/kwad036 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
ChatGPT versus expert feedback on clinical reasoning questions and their effect on learning: A randomized controlled trial
10.1093/postmj/qgae170 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation
10.1109/3468.844354 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1109/educon62633.2025.11016517
10.1109/educon62633.2025.11016517 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1109/incit66780.2025.11276096
10.1109/incit66780.2025.11276096 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The role of tutoring in problem solving
10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
A Meta-Analysis of the Impact of Generative Artificial Intelligence on Learning Outcomes
10.1111/jcal.70117 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores
10.1111/jedm.12000 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Experimental evidence on the productivity effects of generative artificial intelligence
10.1126/science.adh2586 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
TRIPOD+AI statement: Updated guidance for reporting clinical prediction models that use regression or machine learning methods
10.1136/bmj-2023-078378 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1145/3613904.3642159
10.1145/3613904.3642159 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1145/3706598.3713778
10.1145/3706598.3713778 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1145/3706598.3713886
10.1145/3706598.3713886 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1145/3708359.3712104
10.1145/3708359.3712104 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1145/3816713.3816741
10.1145/3816713.3816741 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Learning versus performance: An integrative review
10.1177/1745691615569000 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1177/20427530261449472
10.1177/20427530261449472 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1186/s12909-026-09483-2
10.1186/s12909-026-09483-2 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
The effects of over-reliance on AI dialogue systems on students’ cognitive abilities: A systematic review
10.1186/s40561-024-00316-7 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Human-centered GenAI feedback design in higher education: A multisite experiment on direct, reflective, and hybrid approaches to scientific argumentation
10.1186/s41239-026-00614-9 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
External validity: From do-calculus to transportability across populations
10.1214/14-sts486 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.1371/journal.pone.0304013
10.1371/journal.pone.0304013 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Testing for qualitative interactions between treatment effects and patient subsets
10.2307/2530862 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies
10.3102/0013189x020003002 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
Focus on formative feedback
10.3102/0034654307313795 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.3389/feduc.2026.1834090
10.3389/feduc.2026.1834090 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422
10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758670
10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758670 · ExternalCitation · doi-reference
