Systems hierarchies and management

Abstract In this paper, 18 systems taxonomies/hierarchies are presented and commented upon, from Boulding's ‘system of systems’ (1956) to Glasl and Lievegoed's ‘seven essential elements of any organization’ (1993). A 19th is proposed, which aims at displaying a number of clear‐cut levels sufficient to correspond to the succeeding levels of an enterprise problematique, each new type of interactions defining a new level. The 19 schemes are classified into two groups, ‘General’ and ‘Managerial’, mainly according to their immediate applicability to management. Each group was split into two subgroups, respectively stressing complexity, system–milieu interactions, decision levels and, finally, intrasystem and system environment interactions. A comparative analysis of the whole set is summarized, converging towards three hierarchies seen as more adequate: Beer's, Jantsch's and the one proposed in this paper. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.