Abstract
Abstract Human activities such as industrial effluents, agricultural run-off, and other land-based sources of pollution contaminate water with trace elements, posing threats to both the environment and human health. This study investigates concentrations of three trace elements, namely nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu), in an assessment of health risks. The study comprised three different sources of water, namely surface water (SW), groundwater (GW), and industrial water (IW), sampled from six tehsils of District Bahawalpur, namely Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur Saddar, Hasilpur, Ahmedpur East, Yazman, and Khairpur Tamewali. A total of thirty water sampling sites, ten sites for each of the three types of water sources, were selected, and water samples were collected in the months of August, September, and October 2025. Results of the studied trace elements showed the highest concentrations in industrial water samples, followed by GW and SW samples (p 1 in all three water sources, suggesting potential risks. While, estimated carcinogenic health risks for the three types of water sources under study were found to be within the acceptable limits for all the studied health risks. This study provided a better understanding of various pollutants and their concentrations in water sources at the studied location.