A multi-state assessment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), pesticides, and antibiotic resistance genes in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) of the United States

Sentinel species provide a vital One Health perspective on ecosystem contamination driven by rising global chemical production. We evaluated white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; n = 54, 24 states, six matrices) as nationwide bioindicators for PFAS, pesticides, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes, and microbiome diversity. PFAS were detected in 100% of deer samples (26 compounds identified overall; non-detect to 12.3 ng/g ww), with preferential accumulation in the liver, indicating widespread systemic exposure. Neither region, landscape, nor source proximity predicted liver PFAS concentrations, whereas landscape had a significant, albeit weak, effect on spleen concentrations. This overall absence of strong spatial drivers suggests ubiquitous background contamination rather than localized point-source exposure. Conversely, 13 pesticides/transformation products (ranging from non-detect to 88.6 ng/g ww; highest in scat) were detected in only 28% of samples, despite widespread national use. Since not all possible transformation products were measured, these data reflect the accumulation of the target compound rather than total pesticide exposure. Driven by the rapid metabolism and excretion of herbicides, persistent insecticides dominated tissue samples. Additionally, biological threats were prevalent with eight distinct AMR genes identified in WTD scat, frequently featuring the florfenicol resistance gene (flost, 33%). The presence of synthetic compounds and AMRs in game meat and scat pose a direct One Health risk to the human food chain. These findings highlight the value of using a single, widely distributed sentinel species as an early warning system for the ecological and public health threats posed by global chemical pollution.