Agroforestry adoption and perceptions in Germany: Evidence from adopter–non-adopter comparisons and a discrete choice experiment

Agroforestry systems support sustainable land use, climate protection, biodiversity, and long-term productivity, yet adoption in Germany remains limited. This study investigates German farmers' perceptions of agroforestry, identifies the factors influencing agroforestry adoption and adoption intensity, and explores farmers' preferences for different attributes of agroforestry systems. Based on a cross-sectional online survey and a discrete choice experiment, we employ a double-hurdle model and a mixed logit model for the analyses. Results indicate that 24 % of the surveyed farmers have adopted agroforestry, and 23 % of all respondents intend to establish a new agroforestry system within the next five years. Both adopters and non-adopters recognize the ecosystem services provided by agroforestry, although adopters view the economic and ecological impacts more positively. Adoption probability increases with age, organic farming, livestock holding, and grassland cultivation, whereas more leased land and longer farming experience reduce the adoption probability. Adoption intensity is positively influenced by the perceived economic benefits, and negatively associated with organic farming, higher education, and grassland cultivation. Farmers reveal preferences for lower tree densities, while payments of up to 400 €/ha per year have no significant influence on their choices. Moreover, the qualitative responses suggest that farmers favor unlimited land-use reconvertibility. The findings provide exploratory but policy-relevant insights, including the need to strengthen knowledge transfer through networks and demonstration sites, address challenges related to land-use rights, restructure supply chains, and design more attractive and flexible funding instruments. Overall, the study highlights the importance of strengthening economic awareness, institutional support, and tailored incentives to foster wider agroforestry adoption in Germany.