Risk factors associated with negative energy balance in dairy cows during the transition period

Abstract Negative energy balance (NEB) is commonly observed in dairy cows during the transition period and is considered a major metabolic challenge. It is associated with reduced milk production, decreased body condition score (BCS), and an increased risk of reproductive disorder. There is insufficient evidence linking agro-ecological conditions and dairy cow management practices to NEB through the analysis of milk fat-to-protein ratio (FPR), especially in smallholder dairy systems. The milk FPR is widely recognized as an indirect indicator of the energy balance status of dairy cows, as elevated FPR values reflect increased mobilization of body fat reserves and are commonly associated with NEB during the transition period. The research was conducted on 316 smallholder dairy farmers through cross-sectional study design. A multiple linear regression analysis was used to find factors that were independently linked to the milk FPR level during the early stages of lactation, the model elucidated 87% of the variation in the milk FPR (adjusted R² = 0.87; P  < 0.001). Intensive feeding systems, optimum dry matter intake (DMI), supplementing of formulated dairy cow rations, agro-industrial by-products, and mineral supplement were linked to a lower FPR. On the other hand, midland agro-ecology and no minerals supplement were both strongly linked to higher FPR. Improving management strategies to fit the local agro-ecological conditions may help reduce metabolic disorders, especially during the transition period.