Abstract
The influence of winds at high elevations varies depending on topography. We investigated leaf and bud morphology, needle moisture content, shoot growth, and shoot damage in spring across four coniferous species—Abies koreana, Picea jezoensis, Pinus koraiensis, and Taxus cuspidata—located in wind-exposed, wind-intermediate, and wind-protected sites in subalpine areas. We aimed to understand the effects of wind and topography on tree growth and to identify species-specific traits adaptive to windy conditions. Foliar damage was greater at wind-exposed sites than at wind-protected sites, while needle moisture content and foliar density were significantly higher at wind-protected sites than at wind-exposed sites (p < 0.001). Abies koreana exhibited low bud mortality (3.5%) but experienced high levels of leaf shedding. Picea jezoensis showed higher bud mortality (6%); however, its sharp callous tips strengthened the connection between leaf and stem, reducing leaf shedding. Leaf folding in Pinus koraiensis protected new leaves and buds, thereby reducing foliar damage and bud mortality through this adaptive morphology. Taxus cuspidata had the highest needle moisture content and the greatest levels of bud and cambium damage among the species; however, the high shoot damage was offset by a high recovery rate through sprouting. Principal component analysis revealed that the four species exhibited distinct patterns of shoot growth and damage correlated with their morphological characteristics, demonstrating that each species has developed unique growth, damage control, and survival strategies to persist under the windy conditions of subalpine ecosystems.