Engineered nanovaccines for prophylactic and therapeutic immunotherapy against cancer and infectious disease

Nanotechnology has transformed vaccine development by engineering nanovaccines that offer precise control over antigen performance, immune modulation and targeted delivery. These platforms influence physicochemical properties size, charge, and ligand expression to direct antigen trafficking, co-deliver adjuvants and antigen-presenting cells, stimulating potent and robust adaptive immune responses. This review discusses the development of nanovaccines for prophylactic vaccines which induce antibody and memory B-cell responses and therapeutic cancer vaccines, which overcome tolerance and immunosuppression to activate CD8+ T cells with particular emphasis on lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), polymeric NPs, inorganic-core NPs, virus-like particles (VLP) and mechanisms by which each platform exploits physicochemical properties to enhance the antigen encapsulation, adjuvant incorporation, lymphatic transferring, quality and quantity of adaptive immune responses. We reviewed the clinical and preclinical developments of these nanovaccine platforms in cancer and infectious disease immunotherapy, including major successes and new opportunities that will shape the future of vaccines for prevention and treatment.