Abstract
Seasonal water stress is increasingly recognised as a major constraint to livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in smallholder dairy goat production systems that depend on rain-fed resources. This study assessed the influence of seasonal water stress on direct water use and milk production performance of dairy goats under contrasting highland and lowland ecosystems in Embu County, Kenya. The study employed a cross-sectional survey involving 196 smallholder dairy goat farms, which was conducted in the Runyenjes (highland) and Mbeere North (lowland) sub-counties. Data on direct water use volume, water costs, and milk production during normal, prolonged drought, and excessive rainfall seasons were collected using structured questionnaires. Effects of season, production system, ecosystem, and their interactions were analysed using General Linear Models. The results of the study showed substantial variation in direct water use among farms, ranging from approximately 22.7 to 41.8 litres per farm per day. Seasonal effects on water volume used were not significant (P > 0.05), whereas the ecosystem significantly influenced water use (P < 0.05), with farms in the highland ecosystem using more water than those in the lowland ecosystem. Water costs differed significantly across seasons and production systems (P < 0.05), with costs being highest during normal seasons. Milk yield varied according to ecosystem and stage of lactation. Goats reared in the lowland ecosystem produced significantly more milk than those in the highland ecosystem (P < 0.05). Seasonal effects on milk production were not significant, although prolonged drought and excessive rainfall tended to influence production patterns. The findings demonstrate that ecosystem characteristics exert a stronger influence on dairy goat water use and productivity than seasonal conditions alone. Strengthening climate-smart water management interventions and ecosystem-specific dairy goat production strategies will enhance the resilience and sustainability of smallholder dairy goat farming under increasing climate variability.