Abstract
This study examines how household demographic vulnerability, health burden, human capital, and locational disadvantage are associated with monthly per capita household income in Binh Dinh Province, Central Vietnam. Using cross-sectional survey data collected in 2025 from 320 households nested within 12 communes/wards across six district-level units, the study estimates linear mixed-effects models with a random intercept at the commune/ward level to account for within-locality clustering. The results show that household income differences are associated with both household-level characteristics and local context. Household size exhibits a concave association with per capita income, while higher elderly and female shares, severe or chronic illness burden, and ethnic-minority status are negatively associated with income. By contrast, the household head’s age and educational attainment are positively associated with income. Urban residence and residence in the western midland–mountain area are not statistically significant after accounting for commune/ward-level clustering, whereas greater distance from Quy Nhon is negatively associated with income. Sensitivity analyses using total household income, categorical education levels, and female household headship support the robustness of the household-size pattern, education association, and female-share result while underscoring the need for cautious interpretation of locational associations. The findings suggest that household income disadvantage is linked not only to demographic dependency and health burden but also to unequal human-capital resources and accessibility. These patterns have implications for place-sensitive human-resource development, skills support, and livelihood policies in territorially differentiated regions.Keywords: household income inequality; household income; demographic vulnerability; health burden; ethnic minority; locational disadvantage; Binh Dinh Province; Central Vietnam