Abstract
Abstract
Carbon-enabled cementitious composites are increasingly proposed for multifunctional civil infrastructure, but transferable design remains difficult because carbon dosage, morphology, processing, structural capacity, electrical transport and electrochemical storage are reported on incompatible bases. This study develops a formulation-level secondary-data framework to identify the material and processing variables that most consistently govern multifunctional performance. The database comprises 59 publications and 453 formulation-level records spanning carbon-modified cementitious composites and structural-supercapacitor systems. A matched-control mechanical subset included 38 carbon-containing formulations from nine studies. Control-normalised 28-day compressive-strength retention ranged from 6.6% to 159.5%, with a formulation-weighted median of 83.3%; when studies were weighted equally, the median increased to 103.8% (study-level percentile bootstrap 95% interval: 65.2-119.7%), highlighting the importance of dependence-aware analysis. Architecture-specific distributions showed markedly different structural responses, while controlled comparisons demonstrated that consolidation can substantially offset strength losses at high particulate-carbon loadings. For Vulcan XC72 nano-carbon black at 5, 10, and 15 wt.% cement, 5 MPa pressing increased strength retention from 69.4%, 37.7%, and 7.3% under vibration to 104.5%, 95.8%, and 88.1%, respectively. Strength–capacitance comparisons further showed that network engineering can shift the structural-electrochemical performance envelope: a CNT-bridged system achieved 1562 mF cm⁻² at 23.1 MPa, whereas a bulk high-carbon system reached 2188 mF cm⁻² at 5.51 MPa. High initial capacitance did not necessarily imply durability. Only two carbon-cement studies overlapped the 50–120 kHz WPT range, and none directly measured WPT coupling or efficiency. Overall, network efficiency, matrix preservation and spatial functional allocation were more informative than carbon dosage alone.