Abstract
The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) is one of the most researched, freely available self-report measures of depression designed to be used in large-scale research. Although the four-factor structure originally identified by Radloff (1977) is well-replicated with Euro Americans, in whom it was developed, evidence suggests that the latent factor structure of the CES-D varies by demographic backgrounds. Thus, reliance on the original CES-D factor structure could mischaracterize depressive symptoms in non-Euro American individuals. Further, past studies have not clearly differentiated the roles of ethnic heritage and socializing culture in equivalence of the CES-D structure across groups. Specifically, both Asian American and Asian national (international) students would be categorized as “Asian” group in the United States but their socializing background and cultural experiences differ. This study investigated the CES-D factor structure and correlates in three ethnoculturally different samples to test for the effects of socializing culture and racial/ethnic differences using measurement invariance (MI) and nomological network analyses. Data were collected from 144 Asian American, 127 Euro American, and 168 Asian national college students. Asian American and Euro American students share a mainstream socializing culture while Asian American and Asian national students share racial/ethnic heritage. Euro American and Asian national students do not share either. MI analyses suggest that Radloff’s four-factor structure met strict invariance between Asian American and Euro American students. The four-factor structure was not identified in the Asian national group. Removing the Interpersonal Problems factor and Item 7 resulted in achieving up to scalar invariance across the three groups. Further, the external correlates of the modified CES-D factor scores indicated similar nomological network of cultural experiences of depressive symptoms in Asian American and Euro American students, as well as Asian American and Asian national students. However, Euro American and Asian national students did not share as much. These findings suggest socialization background to be a source variance underlying factor-structures of depression, and association of depressive symptoms and cultural experiences are affected by both. This study highlights the need to consider contextual information to fully understand how depression may manifest differently across individuals.