Abstract
AbstractPurpose: Individual differences in literacy and numeracy – that is, how well one can read, write, and work with numbers – emerge early in childhood and are crucial indicators of later educational success. Twin and family studies revealed substantial heritability of literacy and numeracy, and genetic overlap between these domains. Yet, it is unclear whether measured genomic variation shows a similarly overlapping or domain-specific pattern, and whether such molecular signals also predict adults’ educational attainment.Method: In N=15,669 participants (52.7% female; Netherlands Twin Register), we predicted children’s literacy, numeracy, and academic achievement, and adults’ educational attainment from genetic predispositions. Children’s learning outcomes were assessed via teacher and parent reports and a nationwide test (age M=12.25 years). Adults reported their highest educational qualification (age M= 42.47 years). We derived polygenic scores (PGSs) for years of education, dyslexia, and reading skills to predict these outcomes. Results: All three PGSs significantly predicted educational outcomes, but the broad years-of-education PGS exceeded the domain-specific dyslexia and reading-skills PGSs. The years-of-education PGS explained up to 10.7% in children’s academic achievement and 13.2% in adults’ attainment, suggesting that broader, large-scale PGS of general education capture much of the genetic signal shared across learning domains.Conclusion: Findings indicate both shared and specific genetic influences on learning. Broad, high-power PGSs maximise prediction, whereas literacy-focused PGSs highlight domain-specific signal. While current PGSs are not suitable for individual prediction, they are valuable for accounting for genetic propensities and improving causal inference in developmental and education research.