Abstract
Stretching is one of, if not the most, frequently employed training routine to improve flexibility with a long-standing tradition reaching back to the old Greeks. For thousands of years, different types of stretching were used to prepare for subsequent movement/ performance (acute effects) (Behm et al., 2021) or to chronically enhance range of motion (ROM) if applied regularly over time (Konrad et al., 2024). In the second half of the past century, stretching became a popular research topic and numerous further benefits were researched and implemented traditions were questioned (e.g., the static stretch-induced force deficit (Warneke & Lohmann, 2024). Today, in sports- and rehabilitative practice, the effects of stretching on injury prevention, within therapeutical applications, and on performance enhancements are discussed controversially. While in physiotherapy stretching is believed to counteract muscular imbalances and ‘bad/harmful’ posture, coaches and athletes partly implement stretching to avoid muscle or ligament injuries or promote post-activity recovery (Babault et al., 2021; Warneke et al., 2024).
To resolve existing controversies, the most recent expert consensus on stretch-applications in healthy adults sought for clarification regarding benefits and drawbacks when implementing stretching exercises (Warneke et al., 2025). Although supporting evidence on stretch-induced advantages is missing in several settings, the expert panel made explicit suggestions for stretching dosages for ROM increases, passive stiffness decreases, or stretch-mediated hypertrophy and strength increases, as research indicated positive effects in acute and/or chronic studies. Accordingly, those athletes and coaches, who seek to use stretching in their training routines, are provided with helpful advice on how to compose their exercise routine. Because the stretching consensus is narrowly focused on stretch effects only, stretching’s relative effectivity remains uncertain.
To provide more context a narrative literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus databases to revisit the proposed underlying mechanisms of acute and chronic stretching effects in several settings previously proposed in the most recent consensus statement. As a result, alternatives that might be potent to substitutetraditional stretching exercise are discussed qualitatively, if no direct comparison is available in the current literature. For instance, acute ROM improvements know numerous, more active alternatives that showed similar effectivity without potential harms of the stretch-induced force deficit. Chronic ROM, strength, and muscle size can be enhanced to a comparable or even higher extent by performing full ROM resistance training, high length partials or eccentric overload, which seems to provide additional benefits, e.g., in injury prevention or related to alleviating ‘bad/harmful’ posture and its related symptoms. While current evidence does not support recovery promoting effects, there are active routines which might serve as more promising alternatives.
Although numerous psychological and neurovascular stretching effects as well as connective tissue property adaptations remain widely unexplored, it seems that stretching might be a possible, but no required intervention to achieve goals like enhanced ROM or decreased stiffness in healthy adults. However, specific stretching effects might comprise psychological, emotional and motivational aspects that cannot be compensated by alternative routines.
References
Babault, N., Rodot, G., Champelovier, M., & Cometti, C. (2021). A Survey on Stretching Practices in Women and Men from Various Sports or Physical Activity Programs. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8), 3928. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083928
Behm, D. G., Kay, A. D., Trajano, G. S., & Blazevich, A. J. (2021). Mechanisms underlying performance impairments following prolonged static stretching without a comprehensive warm-up. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121(1), 67–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04538-8
Konrad, A., Alizadeh, S., Daneshjoo, A., Hadjizadeh, A. S., Graham, S., Zahiri, A., Goudini, R., Edwards, C., Scharf, C., & Behm, D. G. (2024). Chronic effects of stretching on range of motion with consideration of potential moderating variables: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Sport Health Sci, 13(2), 186–194.
Warneke, K., Konrad, A., & Wilke, J. (2024). The knowledge of movement experts about stretching effects: Does the science reach practice? PLOS ONE, 19(1), e0295571. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295571
Warneke, K., & Lohmann, L. (2024). Revisiting the stretch-induced force deficit - A systematic review with meta-analysis of acute effects. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 13(6), 805–819. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2024.05.002
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