Abstract
The well-established concepts of ‘trial and error’ and ‘methodological doubt’ can be compared to concepts found in the book of navigation “Kitāb al-Fawā’id” [The Book of Benefits] by the great Arabian navigator and writer Aḥmad ibn Mājid. While these concepts were developed in the 19th century by Conwy Lloyd Morgan and in the 17th century by René Descartes, respectively, we show that comparable concepts were developed and applied more than 200 years earlier by Ibn Mājid. We present textual evidence from his work highlighting how the observer’s psychological and physical characteristics are integral to the scientific process of accurate measurement, calculation, and the reliable transmission of knowledge. Specifically, we provide an exhaustive (complete) catalogue of the sections within the Kitāb al-Fawā’id where Ibn Mājid details his protocols for data collection, evaluation of inherited knowledge, and professional interactions with fellow navigators and mariners. This catalogue is required for later analysis.