Abstract
The transition towards sustainable transportation requires a deep understanding of how different powertrain technologies impact the environment. This paper presents a literature-based well-to-wheel (WTW) assessment comparing internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) passenger cars, integrating well-to-tank (WTT) and tank-to-wheel (TTW) metrics from recent sources. The WTT phase evaluates energy extraction, processing and distribution, while the TTW phase assesses operational energy consumption, emissions, and efficiency. Results reveal significant variations in environmental performance across vehicle types. ICEVs demonstrate higher emissions and energy consumption during operation, whereas BEVs and FCEVs exhibit zero tailpipe emissions during this phase. HEVs and PHEVs present intermediate values, combining conventional and electric propulsion benefits. Additionally, this study examines the impact of several energy production methods on the environmental footprint of electric vehicles (EVs). In conclusion, adopting a comprehensive WTW framework that considers both upstream and operational stages is essential for evidence-based decisions and advancing the move toward more sustainable mobility systems.