Abstract
Abstract
Kelp forests support ecologically, commercially, and culturally important species, yet their benthic communities remain difficult to monitor consistently across space and time. Scientific SCUBA surveys provide valuable observations but can be constrained by safety, bottom time, depth, and the spatial extent that divers can efficiently cover, motivating complementary approaches for collecting standardized benthic imagery.
We developed and field-tested a standardized, open-source framework for benthic visual-imaging surveys using a small, modular remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Across four costscalable hardware configurations, we integrated navigation sensors, custom BlueOS Extensions, and our surftrak contribution to ArduSub, which enables fixed-altitude flight above the seafloor, and developed two open-source desktop applications that streamline field operations (rov flight ops) and imagery processing (rov imagery processing). We also evaluated power supplies, benthic lighting, camera settings, field protocols, and telemetryprocessing workflows over 303 transects conducted on 64 survey days from 2022 to 2026.
The ROV operated across soft-sediment and rocky habitats, currents of 0–3 kt, and underwater visibility of 0–10 m. surftrak held the ROV within
±
0.2 m of its target altitude for 96% of 21 h of survey transects, producing an approximately 1 m
2
standardized image footprint. Sufficient illumination and optimized camera settings yielded high-resolution imagery in visibility below 2 m, while topside power increased endurance and operational flexibility. Combining Doppler velocity log and underwater acoustic positioning data through the vehicle’s extended Kalman filter improved navigation and post hoc transect reconstruction. During 2026 surveys, rov flight ops and rov imagery processing automated flight logging, log retrieval, fault diagnosis, and the sorting, development, and telemetry annotation of survey imagery. Dense kelp canopies nevertheless constrained vehicle operation, and downward-facing imagery provided limited observations of cryptic or obscured organisms.
We provide configuration-specific bills of materials, hardware and wiring documentation, software and firmware inventories, camera settings, open-source field and imagery-processing software, step-by-step field protocols, and pre- and post-dive checklists to support replication and adaptation of the framework. Together, these resources provide a field-tested starting point for expanding standardized benthic imaging while complementing diver surveys across kelp forests and other shallow coastal ecosystems.