Abstract
Abstract
Precocious reproduction, prior to the acquisition of the final adult morphology, occurs in a variety of animals and represents a distinct life-history strategy with important consequences for growth and survival. Larval reproduction is far rarer and usually restricted to groups that go through metamorphosis. In ctenophores, Carl Chun described “dissogeny” more than 130 years ago, a distinctive life-history pattern involving larval and adult reproductive periods separated by gonadal regression. Yet, the potential plasticity of larval reproduction in ctenophores remains unresolved. Here, we developed a method to follow and quantify reproductive output in
Mnemiopsis leidyi
larvae and tested environmental factors that may regulate precocious reproduction. We found that conspecific density strongly influences its onset: low-density, well- fed animals can bypass reproduction at the cydippid stage and develop rapidly into the lobed form, whereas higher density promotes precocious reproduction. Food availability and associated growth rate also contribute but cannot alone explain the observed differences. Once reproduction is established, however, high conspecific density suppresses reproductive output, an effect reproduced by exposure to seawater incubated with high
M. leidyi
densities, consistent with water-borne chemical communication. Salinity and light conditions further modulate spawning. Together, our results reveal substantial environmental plasticity in precocious reproduction in
M. leidyi
, reconcile long-standing contradictory observations of ctenophore development, and highlight how environmental cues can reshape reproductive life-history transitions.