Abstract
Biodegradable active packaging films based on whey protein concentrate (WPC) and pectin were developed via solution casting by incorporating a camelina oil/propolis oleogel loaded with lemon essential oil (LEO) at 0–1.5% (w/w). The oleogel was prepared by structuring camelina oil with propolis, loading LEO, and dispersing it into the WPC–pectin matrix. FTIR, XRD and SEM confirmed successful oleogel integration via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, increased amorphous character, and a dual plasticization–reinforcement effect. Film thickness decreased from 0.166 ± 0.011 to 0.116 ± 0.005 mm, while tensile strength rose more than threefold from 14.40 ± 0.45 to 47.72 ± 0.76 MPa at 1.5% oleogel. Water vapor permeability was reduced by ∼33% (from 4.05 ± 0.15 × 10⁻5 to 2.73 ± 0.15 × 10⁻5 g m⁻¹ s⁻¹ Pa⁻¹) and water contact angle increased from 45.73 ± 1.35° to 80.80 ± 7.93° Antimicrobial activity was concentration-dependent, with maximum inhibition zones of 12.76 ± 0.40 mm (S. aureus) and 10.83 ± 0.35 mm (L. monocytogenes) at 1.5% loading. The 1.5% oleogel film showed the optimal mechanical, barrier and antimicrobial performance, offering strong potential as a sustainable active packaging material.