Dietary exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances among the general population in Jinan, Shandong Province, China: An integrated approach combining deterministic assessment, probabilistic assessment, and the toxicological priority index

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are commonly detected in the environment as a result of their extensive use in industrial production. Humans are widely exposed to PFASs, with dietary intake being the primary route of exposure. To identify potential health risks associated with food consumption, we measured the levels of 23 PFASs in ten food categories from Jinan, Shandong Province, China. Higher detection frequencies and contamination levels of PFASs were observed in animal-derived foods (ADF) than in vegetable-derived foods (VDF). The predominant compounds in ADF were perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorotridecanoic acid (PFTrDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUdA), whereas PFBA, PFOA, and 4,8-dioxa-3H-perfluorononanoic acid (ADONA) predominated in VDF. Among all food categories, aquatic food was the most heavily contaminated with PFASs. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of Σ23PFASs ranged from the lower-bound estimate of 6.02 × 103 to the upper-bound estimate of 8.37 × 103 pg/kg bw/day, with comparatively greater estimates for urban residents. PFBA and PFOA were the most commonly consumed PFASs in the human diet. Further exposure risk assessments for these two PFASs indicated that dietary exposure to PFOA posed a potential health risk, whereas risks from PFBA remained within acceptable limits. Moreover, PFOA, PFBA, and PFUdA were identified as high-priority compounds by the toxicological priority index (ToxPi) model, which integrates toxicity, persistence-related properties, and detection frequency. Given the potential contributions from non-dietary pathways and the complexity of real-world diets, future research should refine risk assessments using more representative human exposure scenarios.