Dual-process theories beyond cognitive psychology: psychodynamic, clinical, and neurobiological perspectives

Dual-process theories (DPT) have become an influential framework for understanding human cognition by distinguishing between two modes of mental processing, often described through distinctions such as automatic vs. controlled, intuitive vs. analytic, or unconscious vs. conscious. Although initially developed within cognitive psychology, this review considers DPT in relation to psychodynamic, clinical, and neurobiological perspectives to explore their complementary contributions to understanding human mental functioning. From a psychodynamic perspective, particular attention is given to primary process thinking and its potential contribution to contemporary debates concerning the nature and organization of different modes of processing. We suggest that primary process has been conceptualized in two broad ways: as a qualitatively distinct mode of processing or as a less differentiated form of a shared underlying mental organization, with potential implications for how different modes of mental processing are understood and investigated. Clinical perspectives further demonstrate the relevance of these theories across a range of phenomena—from psychosomatic symptoms to depression—as well as in clinical decision-making and psychotherapeutic change. Neurobiological findings provide insights into different aspects of dual-process distinctions and highlight the involvement of dynamically interacting brain networks rather than discrete and independent neural systems. Rather than proposing direct equivalences between constructs and findings from different fields, this review argues that DPT provides a useful conceptual framework for examining related psychological phenomena across psychodynamic, clinical, and neurobiological perspectives. In doing so, it may facilitate interdisciplinary research and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of human mental functioning and psychopathology.